Paul Hattaway, Zhejiang: The Jerusalem of China. Volume Three in The China Chronicles: Inside the Greatest Christian Revival in History. London: SPCK, 2019. Also published by Asia Harvest.
Zhejiang: The Jerusalem of China follows the pattern of this fast-moving, multi-volume magisterial history of the growth of Christianity in China from the earliest days up to the twenty-first century. The author first introduces the geography, history, and peculiar characteristics of each province, and then traces the story, beginning with the earliest known Christian presence and then moving, decade by decade, along the timeline, especially focusing on the past two hundred years. He mixes general narrative with short biographies of outstanding actors, both Chinese and foreign.
Though one of the smallest provinces in China, Zhejiang has long been among the most influential. Its people live either in the interior mountainous parts or along the coast, with its many offshore islands. Hangzhou has long had the reputation as one of most beautiful cities in China, with its rich history.
Traditionally, a variety of different dialects have kept people apart, but Mandarin has united them since the Communist revolution. Today, the major cities of Hangzhou, Ningbo, Wenzhou, and Shaoxing together produce a disproportionate amount of China’s wealth, while Wenzhou sends millions of enterprising businessmen, many of them Christians, around the world.
The Nestorians (who are now called by scholars the Church of the East) arrived in Hangzhou as early as the eighth century, and flourished for several centuries, despite persecution, but eventually almost disappeared, hampered by “sin and [doctrinal] compromise,” until by 1663 they numbered only 1,000.
Roman Catholics established a presence in the province in the 1600s, but Protestants didn’t arrive until 1843, after Ningbo was became one of the ports open to foreigners after the First Opium War. Hattaway focuses on their work over the next 150 years, beginning with D.J. MacGowan of the American Baptist Misson, then Divie McCartee, an American Presbyterian, and the redoubtable Mary Ann Aldersey, the first female evangelical missionary to live in China. They were followed by other pioneers, like William Russell, later Anglican bishop, William Parker, Griffith John and his wife Margaret. Notably, these early missionaries laid a solid foundation for a fully indigenous church by teaching their converts to support their own pastors and churches themselves, rather than relying on foreign funds.
He concludes this chapter with a brief retelling of the epic story of Hudson and Maria Taylor and the China Inland Mission (CIM) that Taylor founded. Here are two long quotations, the first from Taylor, whose career Hattaway tells in brief. He ends with two quotations that deserve inclusion here. The first, from Hudson Taylor:
Shall not the eternal interests of one-fifth of our race stir up the deepest sympathies of our nature with the most strenuous effort of our Blood-bought powers? Shall not the low wail of helpless, hopeless misery, arising from half the heathen [i.e., unconverted] world, pierce our sluggish ear and rouse us, spirit, soul and body, to one mighty, continued, unconquerable effort for China’s salvation? That strong in God’s strength and in the power of His might, we may snatch the prey from the hand of the mighty; that we may pluck these brands from the everlasting burning, and rescue these captives from the thralldom of sin and Satan; to grace the triumph of our Sovereign King, and to shine forth forever as stars in His diadem? (33).
A century later, the American missiologist Ralph Winter wrote:
God strangely honored [Hudson Taylor] because his gaze was fixed upon the world’s least-reached peoples. Hudson Taylor had a divine wind behind him. The Holy Spirit spared him from many pitfalls, and it was his organization, the China Inland Mission . . . that eventually served in one way or another over 6,000 missionaries, predominantly in the interior of China (34).
The narrative continues, with short biographies of notable missionaries, such as George and Grace Stott and James Meadows of the CIM.
One of the great strengths of all the volumes of The China Chronicles comes from Hattaway’s equal focus on Chinese Christians, who grew in numbers from a handful to today’s millions. We read of brave and faithful followers of Christ like Y.T. Zia, the first ordained Chinese Presbyterian minister in China, and “a man after God’s own heart.”
The history of Christianity in China, including Zhejiang, is replete with instances of ferocious opposition to the gospel and its adherents, from the earliest days to the present. Hattaway narrates these events with searing honesty, writing about the brutal persecution and barbaric treatment inflicted on Christians by their enemies.
1880s
As in the entire history of Christianity throughout the world, most believers have withstood the test with sterling bravery, while a few have succumbed to pressure and have fallen away. The same holds true in Zhejiang. Through it all, foreigners and Chinese labored together toward one end: the spiritual salvation of this great people.
In 1882, a Chinese pastor named Wen Jisong penned a letter to missionaries that expressed his gratitude toward them: “I ought also to thank you foreign brethren because you brought the gospel to us. If you had not brought it we would still be in darkness. There are many of you who labor for us; there are many of you who give much money; there are many of you who pray earnestly for us; and again there are those who wish to preach the gospel that many Chinese may be saved. For all this I thank you” (52).
As usual, gospel advance met with strong opposition, not only from Roman Catholics who were jealous of Protestant success in attracting converts to their faith – even though the Protestants did not offer material incentives to join their churches, as the Roman Catholics did – but from Chinese scholars and religious leaders who resented what they considered a “foreign” cultural invasion.
Hattaway fills his story with brief but vivid vignettes of Chinese believers like a Mrs. Liu, Wang Laijun and Ren Chengyuan (who worked with the CIM), and Dora Yu Cidu, an evangelist.
Contrary to the oft-repeated myth that Chinese have no concept of sin and therefore must be approached indirectly by showing how Christianity accords with Confucian ethics, Hattaway records testimonies from people like a young schoolgirl named Ying Wajing who, when asked why she wanted to be baptized, said, “I am a sinner. My heart is sinful, and what I do is sinful,” but then went on to declare, “Jesus can forgive them. He shed His blood on the Cross, that sins may be forgiven.” She braved the cold winter water because she wanted to receive baptism as soon as possible (59).
In the 1890s, there were missionaries like Grace Scott, who continued ministry even after her husband had died, and William Soothill, a friend of Timothy Richard.
These Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries rejoiced to see a major revival break out toward the end of the decade, only to reel under the massive assault of the Boxer Rebellion, which claimed the lives of thousands of Chinese Christians and hundreds of missionaries. Their deaths were not in vain, however, for another revival took place in the early 1900s.
Not only were individuals brought into the church, but they formed anti-foot-binding societies to break the cycle of deforming the feet of little girls.
During the 1910s and 1920s, many transitions changed the face of the church, as new leaders replaced veteran Chinese pastors and older missionaries, who happily handed over the reins to qualified Chinese. Hattaway notes that the CIM left more easily than some other societies, as “old hands” like James Meadows and William Rudland, whose long careers saw great hardship and suffering as well as faithful service and perseverance, departed from the scene.
Revival broke out again in the 1930s, spurred on by itinerant evangelistic bands who preached a life-changing gospel in both urban and rural churches. One such group was known as the “Bethel Band,” including, at first, John Sung, who later formed his own revival and evangelism ministry. One of the greatest evangelists of all time, and certainly the greatest in Chinese history, Sung combined fiery, Bible-based preaching in which he called for specific repentance, trust in Christ, and total dedication with a remarkable gift of healing through prayer. Many thousands of Christians, perhaps tens of thousands or more, traced the beginnings of their faith to his Spirit-filled life and powerful preaching.
After 1938, the Japanese invasion plunged the nation into what Hattaway calls, “the height of misery” for millions of people. Christians responded with more evangelism and deeper church life. During this time and until the early 1950s, Watchman Nee (Ni Tuosheng) started a dynamic and still-thriving movement called the “Little Flock,” which spread from Nee’s base in Shanghai to neighboring provinces, including Zhejiang.
The terrible trials continued through the war against Japan (1937-1945) and then the rule of the Communists (1949 to the present). Moving slowly at first, the Communists then launched a systematic campaign to eliminate Christianity from Zhejiang and then from all of China. They forced churches to stop meeting, confiscated Bibles, and attacked individual believers, especially pastors. From Wenzhou alone, forty-nine pastors were sent to prison camps, where they endured daily back-breaking labor, malnourishment, and torture. Only one of them survived. Meanwhile, their wives and children suffered police brutality, ostracism at school, and universal rejection.
During the 1960s, the Bamboo Curtain closed China from all outside news. The “Great Cultural Revolution” wreaked havoc in schools, factories, and all of society, as millions suffered from state-sponsored terror. Forbidden to gather as before, believers met in small groups in homes, barns, or the countryside. Most held onto their faith despite fierce persecution, often sacrificing their lives to remain faithful to Christ, encourage other Christians, and share the gospel.
But God had not abandoned his people. The Spirit began to move mightily, working miracles and transforming lives. After a while, stories began to trickle out to Hong Kong and elsewhere, of how the testimony of brave believers who had been subjected to cruel torture impacted their non-Christian neighbors and even some Communist cadres, causing them to wonder where their power came from and sparking many conversions. God’s wrath led many to repentance. New converts destroyed their idols. Sometimes, the glory of the Lord descended upon individuals and congregations.
Not surprisingly – such are the ways of God - prolific growth occurred in the 1980s after the 1978 “Opening and Reform” campaign of Teng Xiaoping. As numbers of Christians exploded, so did the need for Bibles. The lack of the Scriptures brought cults; some of them, like the Eastern Lightning cult, employed violence to coerce people to leave orthodox congregations and join their sect.
The 1980s also witnessed the amazing emergence of the “registered” house churches of Wenzhou. Sympathetic officials allowed large congregations of mostly prosperous Christians to gather in officially approved buildings and to register as legal churches, but outside of the Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) organization.
The rapid increase of believers sparked more persecution, often at the instigation of the TSPM, whose leaders saw these congregations as a threat to their own status and reputation as “the” church for Protestants. Once again, Christians underwent torture, beatings, imprisonment, and even death. Many believers in Zhejiang, and elsewhere in China, still won’t go to TSPM as a result. In response, the TSPM publishes “notoriously conservative” numbers of “house” church Christians that only take baptized adult church members into account. Even these “doctored” statistics prove that the “house” church believers far outnumber those who attend the state-sponsored organization.
By the end of the 1980s, “thousands of flourishing churches had emerged, full of vibrant and joyful believers.” Wenzhou had become known as the “Jerusalem” of China” or “Holy Land” of China because of the presence of so many churches.
Such expansion did not come without a price, however, as we have seen. Hattaway describes several well-organized campaigns to suppress the church that featured the kind of brutality believers had suffered before and produced such stalwart heroes as Miao Zizhong. For his faithful service, he underwent horrific abuse, beatings, and torture. Decades of indefatigable gospel labor, miracles worked through him, and a dedication to the Word of God that included memorization of the whole Bible earned him the sobriquet, “The Cedar of Lebanon.” This chapter alone is worth the price of the book, as the saying goes.
From the 1990s to the 2010s, Hattaway vividly recounts the familiar pattern of cycles of persecution followed by relative calm; then savage persecution and continued evangelism, first to other parts of China and then to cities around the world. During a period of quiet, huge cathedral-like buildings accommodating large congregations displayed the wealth and social power of the churches in Wenzhou. Revival even spread to the TSPM, Roman Catholics, and Little Flock congregations. Resistance to TSPM persisted.
Weak spots included the low rate of biblical literacy, pride in their buildings, wealth, and education, and a consequent lack of spiritual power. The so-called “prosperity gospel” led many to believe that God promises health, wealth and earthly happiness to his people.
Starting around 2015, hundreds of the towering “cathedrals” were demolished or had crosses on the top removed. Such massive structures spawned problems: they diverted funds from evangelism and training; drew people to meetings just to be a part of something perceived as successful; and attracted the attention of government officials who feared the growth of a rival organization defying official atheistic doctrines.
Hattaway does not write hagiography. He includes criticism of the baneful influence of overseas Pentecostal leaders, who “anointed” Miao Zhitong as an apostle. This presumptuous action by outsiders, who had not consulted with local Christians who knew Miao, effected a radical change in his personality that led to his alienation from former coworkers and friends. Happily, just before his death he repented.
Starting in 2016, thousands of churches had to close. Especially since 2017, Zhejiang’s Christians have once again been subjected to harsh persecution, affecting even the pastor of a TSPM megachurch.
The success of persecution in Zhejiang encouraged leaders in other provinces to attack churches. Families were forced to replace crosses and Christian posters in their homes with pictures of Mao or Xi. Pressure increased as the government said it would produce a “Socialist Bible.” In 2018 the “Sinicization of Christianity” campaign was launched. Pastors were forced to pledge loyalty to the Party. Big congregations broke into small groups. Pastors went into hiding. The new Social Credit system threatened to take away Christians’ ability to travel, work, buy and sell. In short, Christians in Zhejiang, as well as the rest of China, face the greatest challenge since the coming of Protestant Christianity in the 1800s.
Still, Hattaway remains cautiously optimistic, for Zhejiang still holds the greatest concentration of evangelical Christians in China, and – in marked distinction to other places – the majority of them are men. The policy of the early missionaries to require churches to support themselves has produced a robust movement that defies government attempts to eradicate the Christian faith.
Like all the volumes of The China Chronicles, the later chapters of the book include moving quotations from letters penned by believers in Zhejiang that reflect the variety of conditions and temptations they faced. The volume concludes with the usual carefully compiled statistical survey of the Christian population in Zhejiang.
Conclusion
In Zhejiang: The Jerusalem of China, Paul Hattaway has once again demonstrated his matchless skill as a popular historian of Christianity in China and, at the same time, a meticulous researcher. He combines both “big picture” treatments of the overall sweep of events with vivid, even gripping, sketches of both “ordinary” believers and fearless leaders, giving us a remarkably well-rounded picture of a huge movement of God.
Readers must be prepared for very explicit narratives of persecution and suffering, as well as strong language revealing the author’s outrage at brutalities inflicted upon innocent disciples of Jesus. This is not a book for the faint-hearted.
But it provides a strong tonic to those of us who may be lukewarm in our devotion to Christ and too used to the “culture of comfort” that has made many Christians who enjoy religious freedom totally unprepared for the kind of hardship that has marked true Christianity from the beginning.
Wright Doyle